Ever since the first mass produced vehicle faithfully exited Ford’s Piquette Avenue plant in 1908,1 the automobile has revolutionized personalized transport for the masses. Today, there are more than a billion automobiles2 ferrying children to school, parents to work and individuals to locations of practical importance. While the function has changed many aspects of our lives, the environmental damaging result may not have been as foreseeable. Today, the average gasoline powered motor vehicle emits 8,887 grams of carbon dioxide per gallon of gasoline.3 That is nearly 9 kilograms! This number, however, is not very easy to visualize and most cannot directly perceive the consequences of pooling this data over a year, or among approximately 250 million automobiles.4 In fact, the annual average for carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from a gasoline powered vehicle is about 5.1 metric tons.5 Imagine multiplying that by the number of automobiles on the road!
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The issue of CO2 emissions is further complicated by associated emissions of numerous other renewable energies into the design and drive of their cars, and we have outlined some of the popular alternatives that have come out.
ELECTRIC
The good: Electric vehicles completely eliminate the prospect of tailpipe emissions, and offer a drastic elimination of emissions from the end user level. Electricity is still fairly cheap, and there is an increasing shift to renewable source of energy for grid operation, especially in California. Although the prices vary, the national average drifts towards $10.58 cents per kilowatt- hour.6 This translates to a fuel cost that can be as low as $600 annually7 with miles per gallon figures reaching 100, such as the smart car that can achieve 122 mpg city. Even for a large car such as the Tesla Model S, miles per gallon figures have been estimated at 95 mpg combined.8 Not only is the ride environmental, electric motors tend to generate more torque than a conventional car, granting the user a feeling of good responsiveness combined with a noiseless ride.
The reality: After a short burst of popularity in the late 90s, electric cars died out because of the deficient power. Batteries store far less energy than gasoline, and as a result most electric cars are unable to carry heavy loads or travel more than a hundred miles without a recharge.9 There is also the aspect of refueling, which unfortunately does not entail a five minute trip to the pumps. Fully recharging the batteries of an electric car can take up to 8 hours, with quick charge stations taking at least 30 minutes. More so, there are only 1,800 charge stations10 in the entire world with only 12 quick charge stations as of 2012 and it is alleged that quick charge can wear out the battery much faster than a conventional charging station.
The batteries used also can pose an environmental threat as many are made from nickel metal hydride, lithium ion, or lead-acid. Fortunately, most manufacturers provide a recycling and disposal program. Electric cars are still calculated to produce emissions indirectly because most power plants generate electricity using fossil fuels, but this impact is tiny compared to the exhaust from gasoline cars. Most commercial electric vehicles are not the cheapest either, the Nissan Leaf, a subcompact car, starts at a whopping $28,80011. Therefore, when buying an electric car, the consumer is faced with the prospect of estimating the breakeven payoff for using an electric car. At the same time, however, the increasing gasoline prices are starting to tip the balance more distinctly in favor of electric vehicles.
The market: The future of 100% electric vehicles lies in improvements in battery technology. Companies such as Tesla Motors12 have released high performance sports cars such as the Model S and Roadster that can go from 0 to 60 MPH in mere seconds. Electric vehicle company ZAP13 has also created a car that can travel 350 miles between recharges. For city drivers, the Smart14electric car offers a miniature solution to mpg numbers that hit 122 mpg. There are also electric cars that are much more down to earth and sizable such as the Toyota Rav4 EV15. The market for these types of vehicles is predicted to greatly expand over the coming years.
HYBRID-ELECTRIC/Plug In Hybrid
The good: One of the most popular alternative fuel types, hybrid cars combine the power of electricity and gasoline in order to give you up to 55 miles per gallon16. The weaker electric engine helps to power the car as much as possible, and the battery is recharged during braking. The key to the mileage gain comes from regenerative breaking, which eliminates power loss that comes with breaking during city driving. The electric motor in most hybrids will recharge on their own, but some have plug-in capabilities. While plug-in hybrids, as with the electric car, are still hitting the 30K mark in pricing the good news is that standard hybrids are going much cheaper these days. The pricing of a 50 mpg vehicle such as the Prius starts as low as $24,20017, which is a great deal considering that the Prius is a moderately large and comfortable car that has been the hybrid gold standard since its inception.
The reality: Batteries are expected to wear out, but no accurate estimates to hybrid battery life have yet been made. If and when your battery does die, the replacement cost will be several thousand dollars. Today, most hybrid batteries are designed to last the lifetime of the vehicle. Many manufacturers have a warranty that covers the battery for 8 to 10 years and provide a battery-recycling program. The combustion engine runs on gasoline, so refueling is not an issue. However, this also means that the same harmful greenhouse emissions will be released into the environment, albeit at a reduced level. While hybrids were once granted access to HOV lanes in California with a special sticker, the program is no longer issuing permits for standard hybrids or accepting current users from freely using the HOV lane18.
The market: Toyota is the current king of the hybrid market, with its very popular Prius having just topped the Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Energy’s list of most fuel-efficient vehicles. The developing popularity of the Prius seems to have spawned an industry wide development of hybrid technologies. Nowadays nearly every car manufacturer from Hyundai to Ford have their line of hybrid models, and such a concept has been applied to vehicles of nearly all shapes and sizes. The Chevrolet Tahoe, for example, used to have its own hybrid line of vehicles. Newer trends in development, however, are shifting towards the plug-in hybrid with the electric motor becoming the dominant source of power rather than playing a secondary role in a standard hybrid. One of the most popular plug-in hybrids is the Chevrolet Volt19, whose main power source is electricity but with a backup gasoline engine in case the user is unable to fully charge the car. Similarly, Toyota has also developed a plug-in hybrid version of the Prius20. The hybrid concept is also being applied to complement other experimental alternative fuels such as hydrogen. An example of this is the Ford Edge 21, which combines hydrogen fuel cell technology and electric batteries to create a hybrid drive-train. So futuristic was the idea, that the Edge can even be recognized in the 007 film : Quantum of Solace. Unfortunately, this vehicle has been in the concept stage for quite a while now, and it does not seem that Ford has found a way to commercialize this technology yet.
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ETHANOL
Ethanol is an alcohol made from food products such as corn and wheat. The molecule is actually added to most blends of traditional gasoline, although at a level of ten percent or less.22 Recent demand for alternative fuels, however, has given rise to engines that use E85, a blend of 85% ethanol with 15% gasoline, with the added benefit of boosting octane ratings23.
The good: Due to the relative abundance of ethanol fermentable crop in the United States, E85 has the potential to reduce foreign reliance on oil24. Additionally, as a fuel derived from crops it can be classified as a renewable fuel with carbon emissions that are more equivocal given that a single plant may absorb the carbon that it is used to produce.
The reality: Apart from diminishing foreign reliance on fuel, the prospect of E85 being a practical alternative fuel begins to go downhill. Firstly, there is the obvious issue of supply and demand associated with converting food into ethanol. The price of food will almost certainly go up, given that corn is a foundation for nearly everything in the American diet.
Another point of consideration is that ethanol from corn meets a very small percentage of the energy needs in the United States and for it to completely replace gasoline would require more cropland than currently exists across the entire U.S. Thus, the true sustainability of ethanol is questionable. Fossil fuel emissions from growing, harvesting, and refining corn into ethanol, as well as from transportation of stock, significantly lower the true net environmental payoff. There is also the questionable issue of emissions reduction. While E85 may produce less tailpipe emissions, it also had a far less energy density than gasoline and therefore is consumed by the engine at a much faster rate. Altogether, E85 does very little to reduce carbon emissions as the frequency of fill ups would substantially increase. On that note, using E85 will not be cheaper than conventional gasoline25 and may even be more expensive in certain states. There is also very little infrastructure available for E85 users, with only 2,100 E85 filling stations across 44 states.
The market: If you are currently shopping for an ethanol car, you have car lots and car lots of choices. The ease of refueling on ethanol varies by location, with refueling stations being far more plentiful in the Midwestern United States than on the coastal areas. On the plus side, many manufacturers offer Flexible Fuel Vehicles that can run on both E85 and conventional gasoline26. The future of ethanol as an alternative fuel in the United States depends on the cost of corn staying low or a switch to ethanol derived from sugar. In addition, a new promising alternative comes in the form of cellulosic ethanol, made from wood chips, switchgrass, and agricultural waste that has no other purpose. Cellulosic ethanol is still in development, but if realized it can make ethanol more economical and effective as an alternative fuel.
BIODIESEL
The good: Since biodiesel comes from plant matter, it is a renewable fuel source. Biodiesel is also better for the environment than traditional fossil fuels. Biodiesel also makes good use of waste i.e used vegetable oil from homes and restaurants to produce lower emissions.
For consumers, the great thing about biodiesel is that it can be used in any diesel engine, interchangeably or even mixed with traditional diesel. Thus, any vehicle with a diesel engine is also an alternative fuel vehicle if you fill it up with biodiesel, which means a large car selection for buyers. There is a great website27 for biodiesel user, a biodiesel locator that sends maps and texts to your cell phone, GPS, etc. While biodiesel on paper does not appear to save money, users can still save a good deal through federal tax credits28.
The reality: Unfortunately, biodiesel is not completely clean, and still releases significant smog and particulate matter into the air. The most obvious con of biodiesel is cost, which is higher at the pump than regular diesel and sometimes even gasoline due to the lack of subsidies for diesel. The tradeoff is the better average mileage from a diesel car29 which hovers around the 40’s, but simultaneously there are many affordable hybrids on the market that can grant 50 mpg using cheaper gasoline. Another problem with biodiesel is that, like ethanol, the alternative fuel only meets a very small percentage of the transportation fuel needs of the United States and is not a realistic replacement for gasoline. In addition, increased farming30 to meet biodiesel needs comes with its own problems and potential environmental harm, and rising demand may also drive up the price of vegetable oils used for food. There is also the practical issue of self converting biodiesel at home or even finding a filling station that offers biodiesel.
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The market: An advantage of biodiesel is the range of normal diesel cars that can be used with this fuel type. All cars with diesel engines can run on biodiesel, which means that there are already many model lines already developed and established. That being said, the prospect of diesel boosting fuel economy has greatly inflated the prices of diesel cars. For example, a diesel powered Volkswagen Golf, a small hatchback, can sell for as high as $26,30031.
NATURAL GAS
The good: Compressed natural gas consists of smaller, cleaner burning hydrocarbons, primarily methane. Natural gas can reduce carbon monoxide emissions as much as 93%, with a 50% reduction in hydrocarbon emissions.32 In addition to being better for the environment, drivers benefit because natural gas engines last longer and require less maintenance. Not only is the vehicle safer from fuel fires, it is also spared from highly fluctuating oil prices in the market. The use of natural gas also reduces dependence on foreign oil since most of this resource comes from within the United States. The United States has a well developed pipeline infrastructure for the delivery of natural gas, with the price of natural gas being about 1/3 of the price of gasoline.
The reality: Although it has lower emissions than petroleum, natural gas is still a fossil fuel and neither renewable nor sustainable. It is also detrimental to the environment; natural gas is a major factor in the controversial Alaska oil drilling. Although it is cheaper, natural gas takes up a greater volume in the fuel tank and thus frequent fueling stops will be anticipated. Natural gas can be further compressed into liquid form, but this requires processing and storage at extremely low temperatures or within insulated tanks. There are also several secondary outcomes of natural gas extraction, such as the potential contamination of ground water33 combined with its ability of being a pervasive fire hazard.
The market:
A major apparent disadvantage of natural gas is the lack of vehicles. With Ford’s exit from the arena a few years ago, the Honda Civic GX34 is one of the lone publicized natural gas vehicles for the mass consumer. Alternatively one can also buy natural gas conversion kits35 which must be installed by certified installer unless one is eager to pay a Clean Air Act fine of up to $5,00036. The conversion process does not change the engine, but rather accessory components such as fuel pumps, compressors and valves, which makes it a relatively risk free modification that can be reverted.
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HYDROGEN
The good: Hydrogen fuel cells are currently one of the best developed fuel cell technologies that come in all shapes in sizes for transport as well as industrial power generation application. The reaction involves passing hydrogen gas through a fuel cell, where it is reacted with oxygen to produce energy and water as a byproduct37. As a result, there are no tailpipe emissions associated with hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and similar energy yields to that of conventional gasoline. Hydrogen is also one of the most abundant molecules in the Universe, so there is great prospect in using this fuel as a sustainable energy source.
The reality: Unfortunately, as of yet, the technology is still too good to be true and hydrogen remains a fuel of the future38. Current methods of producing hydrogen do use fossil fuels, which results in pollution. The storage of hydrogen gas has also proven to be very difficult, with bulky components needed to keep hydrogen gas pressurized at 5000-10,000 psi for storage on board. Fuel cells also have a long way in becoming more reliable and durable for consumer use, and this aspect is further complicated by expensive materials such as vanadium and platinum used as catalysts in fuel cells. Vehicles also remain fairly expensive at this stage of development, the Honda Clarity,39 a well-known prototype, cannot even be purchased, but rather leased on a three year contract basis amounting to $600 a month. At this rate, one would be paying the price of a normal car for a three year lease.
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Future Development of Alternative Fuels
A majority of our transport sector is still fueled by fossil fuels, an increasingly expensive and non-renewable resource. As the public increasingly demands solutions to our current dependence on fossil fuels, research and testing efforts continue to focus on alternative fuels, most notably on the hybrid vehicle. The hybrid is the most widely used and manufactured alternative fuel vehicle on the market. Fortunately, thousands of other alternative fuel vehicles are being used on the road today by not only the consumer, but also by many state and federal agencies and private companies. While there are still many miles to go for upcoming technologies, there has been an unprecedented level in automotive development over the past decade which is only to be dwarfed by the next. New developments in technology are putting more of these vehicles on the road, creating a vision of a fossil fuel free future!
For help locating refueling stations around the United States, check out this resource!
